Iranian Journal of Wood and Paper Industries

Iranian Journal of Wood and Paper Industries

Production of Cellulose and Nanocellulose from Macroalgae as Novel Green Sustainable Bioresources

Document Type : Research Paper

Authors
Mohammad Hadi Aryaie Monfared 1
Fatemeh asadi 2
sahab hejazi 3
ahmadreza Saraeyan 3
1 Assistant Professor, Gorgan university of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources
2 pulp and paper industries, Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, Gorgan, Iran
3 Paper Sciences and Engineering Department, Wood and Paper Faculty, Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, Gorgan, Iran.
10.22034/ijwp.2025.2064178.1713
Abstract
Problem definition and objectives: Growing global environmental awareness has significantly boosted the demand for biodegradable and eco-friendly biopolymers. While terrestrial biopolymer sources can lead to overexploitation of land and water resources and potential food displacement, marine macroalgae emerge as highly promising sustainable alternatives. These organisms are independent of terrestrial ecosystems and can contribute effectively to reducing oceanic plastic pollution. This research focuses on investigating the potential of macroalgae for cellulose and nanocellulose (NCs) production, exploring extraction methodologies, and evaluating the unique applications of these materials.
Methodology: The extraction and purification of cellulose and NCs from macroalgae leverage structural similarities between algal and plant cellulose, relying on integrated chemical and mechanical approaches, often complemented by green chemistry and biological methods. Processes typically commence with alkaline pretreatment (e.g., sodium hydroxide, NaOH) to remove hemicelluloses, waxes, and lipids, thereby purifying cellulose fibers. Subsequently, the cellulosic pulp undergoes bleaching with agents like hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) or sodium chlorite (NaClO2), with H2O2 being preferred due to its environmental compatibility. For nanofibrillation, energy-intensive mechanical methods such as super-disk milling, homogenization, or microfluidization are employed to produce cellulose nanofibrils (CNF). In contrast, controlled acid hydrolysis using strong acids (e.g., hydrochloric acid, HCl, or sulfuric acid, H2SO4) is utilized for synthesizing cellulose nanocrystals (CNC). Furthermore, biological methods, including enzymatic hydrolysis with Cellulase enzymes (produced by microorganisms), offer a sustainable and less energy-intensive alternative, leading to reduced chemical solvent consumption and enhanced NC yield.
Results: Extensive research on cellulose and NCs extraction from various macroalgal species (brown, green, and red) has yielded promising outcomes. The outstanding properties of algal NCs, including high mechanical strength, large specific surface area, and excellent biocompatibility, render them highly valuable materials with broad applications. Studies indicate that extracted NCs, such as those from Chara corallina, possess a highly ordered crystalline structure (with a crystallinity index up to 85.64%) and a rod-like nanomorphology coupled with a significant specific surface area (e.g., 823.5 m$^2$/g), substantially enhancing their application potential. In packaging and bioplastics, algal NCs have been successfully incorporated into nanocomposite films (e.g., from Laminaria japonica and Sargassum natans), demonstrating improved physical and mechanical properties, including enhanced water and oxygen barrier resistance. Additionally, cellulose extracted from Cladophora sp. has served as a primary component in high-performance bioplastics, exhibiting a tensile strength of 9.33 MPa and biodegradability exceeding 40% in 5 days. For water treatment, nanocellulose membranes derived from the freshwater macroalga Chara corallina have demonstrated high efficiency in removing heavy metal ions (e.g., cadmium, nickel, and lead) from contaminated water, with efficiencies of 98.20%, 95.15%, and 93.80%, respectively. This presents a sustainable remediation strategy. Moreover, in biomedical applications, NCs extracted from Ulva lactuca have exhibited significant antibacterial properties against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Furthermore, NCs derived from brown algae (Laminaria digitata and Saccharina latissima) show remarkable potential for developing advanced medical dressings and hydrogels, owing to their long-term stability in gel solutions and excellent biocompatibility.
Conclusion: Marine macroalgae represent an abundant, renewable, and sustainable source for high-quality cellulose and NCs production. These biomaterials, with their remarkable physicochemical and mechanical properties, pave the way for diverse applications across various industries. The development of green and cost-effective extraction methods, such as enzymatic hydrolysis and optimized chemical processes, is crucial for the commercialization and improved efficiency of these processes. Given current environmental challenges, utilizing algae-derived NCs not only provides a sustainable pathway for novel material production but also significantly contributes to algal waste management and carbon footprint reduction. This research underscores the vital role of macroalgae in the future of sustainable biopolymers and their innovative applications, thereby paving the way for further research and development in this field.
 
Keywords
Biomass
Macroalgae
Biopolymer
Cellulose
Nanocellulose
Enzymatic Hydrolysis

Subjects

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Iranian Journal of Wood and Paper Industries
Volume 16, Issue 3
Autumn 2025
Pages 381-397